Linguistic Valency in English Grammar

In linguistics, valency is the number and type of connections that syntactic elements can form with one other in a sentence. Also known as complementation. The term valency is derived from the field of chemistry, and as in chemistry, notes David Crystal, a given element may have different valencies in different contexts. Examples and Observations: Like atoms, words tend not to occur in isolation but to combine with other words to form larger units: the number and type of other elements with which a word can occur is a very important part of its grammar. As with atoms, the ability of words to combine in this way with other words is called valency. Valency—or complementation, as it is often called—is an important area of the description of English, one which is on the boundaries of lexis and grammar, and as such has been dealt with in grammars and dictionaries of English.(Thomas Herbst, David Heath, Ian F. Roe, and Dieter Gà ¶tz, A Valency Dictionary of English: A Corpus-Based Analysis of the Complementation Patterns of English Verbs, Nouns, ​and Adjectives. Mouton de Gruyter, 2004)​ Valency Grammar A valency grammar ​presents a model of a sentence containing a fundamental element (typically, the verb) and a number of dependent elements (variously referred to as arguments, expressions, complements, or valents) whose number and type is determined by the valency attributed to the verb. For example, the valency of vanish includes only the subject element (it has a valency of 1, monovalent, or monadic), whereas that of scrutinize includes both subject and direct object (a valency of 2, bivalent, or dyadic). Verbs which take more than two complements are polyvalent, or polyadic. A verb which takes no complements at all (such as rain) is said to have zero valency (be avalent). Valency deals not only with the number of valents with which a verb is combined to produce a well-formed sentence nucleus  but also with the classification of sets of valents which may be combined with different verbs. For example, give and put usually have a valency of 3 (trivalent), but the valents go verned by the former (subject, direct object, and indirect object) are different from those governed by the latter (subject, direct object, and locative adverbial). Verbs which differ in this way are said to be associated with different valency sets. (David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th ed. Blackwell, 2008) Valency Patterns for Verbs The main verb in a clause determines the other elements that are required in that clause. The pattern of the clause elements is called the valency pattern for the verb. The patterns are differentiated by the required clause elements that follow the verb within the clause (e.g. direct object, indirect object, subject predicative). All valency patterns include a subject, and optional adverbials can always be added.There are five major valency patterns: A. IntransitivePattern: subject verb (S V). Intransitive verbs occur with no obligatory element following the verb. . . .B. MonotransitivePattern: subject verb direct object (S V DO). Monotransitive verbs occur with a single direct object. . . .C. DitransitivePattern: subject verb indirect object direct object (S V IO DO). Ditransitive verbs occur with two object phrases--an indirect object and a direct object. . . .D. Complex transitivePatterns: subject verb direct object object predicative (S V DO OP) or subject verb direct object obligatory adverbial (S V DO A). Complex transitive verbs occur with a direct object (a noun phrase) which is followed by either (1) an object predicative (a noun phrase or adjective), or (2) an obligatory adverbial. . . .E. CopularPatterns: subject verb subject predicative (S V SP) or subject verb obligatory adverbial (S V A). Copular verbs are followed by (1) a subject predicative (a noun, adjective, adverb, or prepositio nal phrase) or (2) by an obligatory adverbial. . . . (Douglas Biber et al. Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Pearson, 2002) Valency and Complementation The term valency (or valence) is sometimes used, instead of complementation, for the way in which a verb determines the kinds and number of elements that can accompany it in the clause. Valency, however, includes the subject of the clause, which is excluded (unless extraposed) from complementation.(Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik, A Grammar of Contemporary English. Longman, 1985)

The Christian Old Testament Of The Bible Today - 1754 Words

â€Å"In the beginning, God created the Heauen, and the Earth. And the earth was without forme, and voyd, and darknesse was vpon the face of the deepe: and the spirit of God mooued vpon the face of the waters. And God said, Let there be light, and there was light.† (Genesis 1-3) So begins the first book of the Christian Old Testament, the Hebrew Torah, one of the most recognizable texts in history. At least, the text begins the King James Bible in 1611, itself arguably the most influential version or translation of the Bible today. But this is not the original text. Surprisingly, the original scripture was not written in Early Modern English in the 17th century in the British Isles, but in Hebrew and possibly Aramaic, while the New Testament was written in Koine Greek. In fact, the original Hebrew looked nothing like our Latin script of today. Hebrew is a Semitic language, and therefore an Afroasiatic one, while English is Indo-European, and you would be hard pressed to find someone who believes that the two fall into a larger, connected language family besides some Indian nationalists who believe that all languages are derived from Sanskrit, or Tamil. And although there is much borrowing and exchanging of roots and words, modern English speakers have no mutual intelligibility with Hebrew. As Ralph Waldo Emerson famously said in his Letters and Social Aims, â€Å"Language is a city to the building of which every human has brought a stone.† It’s a nice concept, and it would be hardShow MoreRelatedHistory And Historical Context Of The Old Testament1684 Words   |  7 Pagesof how the Bible came into existence has been explored for centuries and is an active area of study today. There are many facets to the Bible and each has its own set of unique characteristics and teachings. The Old Testament is considered a contemporary guide for daily living, even though it was composed hundreds of years ago. Where did the Old Testament come from? What are some of the influences that shaped the Old Testament? What are the significant events of the Old Testament? In orderRead MoreJewish And Christian Sacred Text1001 Words   |  5 PagesJewish and Christian Sacred Text For years people have had a hard time distinguishing the difference between Christians and Jews. Even when reading about these two religions, they are very similar. There are two main differences that stand out the most amongst these religions. One of them is that Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah while Jews believe He was a prophet. The other difference is their opinions on sacred text. Jewish people and Christians both have sacred text; however, ChristiansRead MoreEssay on The Old Testament Law1260 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction The Old Testament law is seen as irrelevant by most modern Christians today. Christians are now under the blood of Jesus Christ, which is said to abrogate the Law. Galatians 6:2 says, â€Å"Bear one anothers burdens, and thereby fulfill the law of Christ† (NASB). The law of Christ is to love God and your neighbor as yourself (Matthew 22:36-40). This does not mean, however, that the Old Testament Law does not apply to Christians today. Author J. Daniel Hays expounds on this topic in hisRead MoreBible Critical Reflection1108 Words   |  5 PagesAs a Christian, especially someone who was a Christian from birth, the Bible is something I have been familiarize with very well. I have had multiple editions growing up, I read through it cover to cover once, and I would say that the Bible is something that I am comfortable with. I could sit down and just enjoy the stories, listen to the Psalms to help relax if I get stressed out, study Revelation and Daniel and compare them to world events, or I could go to the Bible for some marriage advice. OneRead MoreThe Koran And The Protestant Bible1249 Words   |  5 PagesThe Koran and the Protestant Bible Over the course of this semester, we have talked about the five main religions, each of which containing their own views, backed by their own scriptures and holy books. Due to a length limit, I am going to outline how the Protestant Bible and the Koran came to be in order to demonstrate the differences between how these books were created. I do not begin to understand all of the complications on this topic, nor will all of the arguments that could be made be touchedRead MoreChristianity And The Holy Trinity955 Words   |  4 Pagesof the Bible are the answers for all the problems men face.† (Quotes About Christianity) This quote is from Ronald Regan, and I think it is a good representation of Christianity. Christianity is centered on the teachings and life of Jesus of Nazareth which is found in the Bible. Along with the teachings of Jesus, Christians believe in the Old Testament, that has biblical records that date back to 1500 B.C.E.. Some of these beliefs include the Holy T rinity, salvation, afterlife, and the Bible. TheRead MoreChristianity And The New Testament1311 Words   |  6 PagesChristianity is a religion that is based on the life experiences and teachings of Jesus Christ in the New Testament. Christianity is the largest religion on Earth, with over two billion followers which are called Christians. Jesus is believed to be the Son of God and the Savior of Humanity who is coming as Christ in the flesh which is prophesized in the Old Testament. Christian’s profession of faith is that Jesus suffered for everyone, died and was buried in the tomb, and was resurrected from theRead MoreWhat were the factors that lead to the formation of the New Testament Canon? How valid are they today?1697 Words   |  7 PagesThere is said to be over a thousand years of literature in the Christian Bible as it is today. This essay will look at the New Testament of the Bible, what the factors were that lead to its formation and the validity of those factors. The Bible must be looked at not as a single book, but as a collection of twenty-seven books. These books as we have them today are not originals, they have been translated from copies of copies and as ancient manuscripts were copied by hand, there is much room forRead MoreThe Magna Carte, The Declaration Of Independence, And But The Communist Manifesto1534 Words   |  7 Pagesshape humanity. The Bible has had perhaps more impact on humanity than any other Document ever written. Many people read the Bible, but know little of the history of the Bible itself. The history of the Bible is a fascinating story of the creation of the Bible versions seen today. Many people are familiar with at least some of the contents of the Bible, but the average person knows little of the people, processes, and events involved in its creation and translations. The Bible is a collection ofRead MoreChristopher Wright s The Old Testament And The New Testament1203 Words   |  5 Pagesthe narrative of the Old Testament and the New Testament into one chronicle event moving along the time line to teach and understand the mission of the church. It follows the events of â€Å"knowing the story† and where the church came from and where it is headed. Clearly the church is not complete as Jesus has not returned so the work is still on going. The story continues to be written. Christians today, just as the Jewish people did back during the times of the Old Testament, need to know the story

Greek literature Free Essays

During the time of Homer, Greek literature was saturated in laws and rituals carefully presented through the thrilling plots of adventure and drama. This way, a storyteller could keep the interest of his audience by relating a fantastic episode to the everyday occurrences of an oikos and give the reader both the extraordinary and the familiar. The Odyssey is an assemblage of these episodes whose cloaked intentions were to represent a distinct theme in Ithacan culture. We will write a custom essay sample on Greek literature or any similar topic only for you Order Now Each story presented in the Odyssey allows the reader to further understand the true state of Ithaca and how it compares in civility to other cultures, on the basis of laws, rituals and social conduct. A passage of particular interest is found in Book IX, lines 105-141. It is when Odysseus sits in the palace of the Phaiakians and recalls his encounter with the culture of the Cyclopes. The obvious purpose of this recount is to give the audience another adventure, a new idea which will keep their attention. Yet his journey to the land of the Cyclopes has a greater purpose. It allows the audience to consider another culture with much different civil standards than their own oikos (which in many ways is similar to Ithaca). The Cycloptic culture is that of great indolence and barbarism. Its inhabitants are extremely lazy and live off the livelihood provided to them by Zeus. â€Å"[The Cyclopes’] neither plow with their hands no plant anything, but all grow for them without seed-planting, without cultivation, wheat and barley and also grapevines, which yield for them wine of strength, and it is Zeus’ rain that waters it for them† (Book IX. ll. 108-111). They do no take part in any of the food making process, so it isn’t even as though Zeus is helping them out, he is just doing it for them; this shows how lethargic these creatures truly are. The culture of the Cycloptic civilization has a striking resemblance to the situation in Ithaca. Although during Odysseus’ reign of Ithaca’s, we are lead to believe that it is a great city with hard working citizens, this is not the case all the time. While Odysseus is gone, the situation Telemachos must face reflects an environment with a similar social conduct. The suitors that have come to court Penelope have completely overtaken the oikos. All of Ithaca’s goods and services are at their disposal, of which they did not work or pay for in any manner. â€Å"[The suitors’] heralds poured water over their hands for them to wash with, and the serving maids brought them bread heaped up in baskets, and the young men filled the mixing bowls with wine for their drinking† (Book I. ll. 44-149). Just as the Cyclopes relied on the gods, the suitors did not earn any of their food, but rather they relied on the (one-sided) hospitality of the Ithacans. The political order of the Cyclopes is a very sketchy, undefined one. There is no central government and it is as though they are in constant competition in order to maintain their survival. They do not necessarily look out for each other, but rather have their own personal goal to take care of themselves and their families by any means necessary. â€Å"These people have no institutions, no meetings for council†¦ and each one is the law for his own wives and children and cares nothing about the others† (Book IX. ll. 110-115). Again, this is similar to the way the suitors treat the situation they are put in. Each man is out for himself, to win Penelope’s hand in marriage. Telemachos is fully aware of this fact and tells the assembly of their misconduct. â€Å"For my mother, against her will, is beset by suitors, own sons to the men who are the greatest hereabouts. These shrink from making the journey to the house of her father Ikarios, so that he might take bride gifts for his daughter and bestow her on the one he wished, who came as his favorite; rather all their days, they come and loiter in our house and sacrifice our oxen and our sheep and our fat goats and make a holiday feast of it and drink the bright wine recklessly† (Book II. ll. 50-58). Telemachos tells of how the suitors have no respect for Penelope or the oikos and how they do not care about whether or not the food will run out. They are only out for themselves. In fact, they did not even go to Penelope’s father’s home to pay gift because they are too lazy and selfish. They is no order in the oikos, it just an unruly chaos in which every man is out to get the grand prize for the lowest price possible. Homer has a very ingenious style of story telling, in which he compares and contrasts Ithaca with the civilizations Odysseus encounters during his many years away. Each of these civilization is a reflection of what Ithaca is, was, or could be. In the case of the land of the Cyclopes, Odysseus has a glimpse of what is going back home without even being there. Because Odysseus goes through these journeys, he is able to better understand his own country, and gain a new appreciation for the social rituals which are common during his reign in Ithaca. How to cite Greek literature, Papers

Role of Top Executives in Dynamic Business Environment

Question: Discuss about theRole of Top Executives in Dynamic Business Environment. Answer: Introduction A chief executive is an administrative head of the company. All decision related to the progress of the company is taken under his guidance. The top executive of the company is the source of inspiration for the rest of the employees. In a big organization a C.E.O plays pivotal role in addressing the managerial issues (Cloutier, 2015).They are shouldered with responsibility to work in the good faith of the organization to create a favorable environment. New Zealand is a fast growing economy of the world which has seen transitions due to availability of opportunities. The human resource department has to play a crucial role in retaining the skilled employees. Changing environment and technology has been influencing the fast-paced and unclear changes. It gives an important theory to reshape the managerial talent, developing stakeholders strategies, and managing people under variable business environment (Armstrong, 2016). New Zealand in past years has seen a large amount of migration of native people to Australia in search of employment and opportunities which has affected the economy. Complex business environment has led to serious business threat to the country. New Zealand is facing a fast changing business trends by diversifying into various sectors. It has variety of business set up which has created plentiful of opportunities inside the country. New Zealand has world-class business and consumer services which differentiates it from the rest of the world. Most of the specialized employees are shifting to its local international branch for a growth in their career. The country has seen a vast creation of opportunities in past few years which was ignored due to availability of exposure and opportunities in other countries. Recruitment is becoming a major issue due to shift of talented population. While comparing the economy with the other economy New Zealand is a favorable land to pursue business. Although the local opportunities have increased but a major section has shifted to Australia due to availability of successful labor market (Green et al, 2013). The shift of skilled labor to other countries has caused a fall in overall productivity of the country. The lower productivity has created a significant lower wages which has formed a huge income gap with Australia. The unemployment rate reported in the country was 5.3% which has been the lowest in past 7 years. The report also suggested that there is an increase of people who are not adding to the labor market (What's behind the fall in unemployment? 2016).Reports have suggested that it has caused a severe damage to the economy. Quality of management, labor is the two essentials for a capital intensive economy. Productivity highly depends upon the performance of the management and the employees. Shortage of the skilled managers has caused a serious threat to the growing economy. A source reflects that small scale units should focus on retaining the skilled employees. The economy needs to concentrate its resources in developing the small scale units (Job market key industries, 2016) (New Zealand Economic and Financial Overview, 2016). The local market is changing with the shift in the business trends as globalization has changed the overall manner of conducting business. It has created a confused atmosphere in the global business platform. There is a substantive need to adopt a dynamic business structure to facilitate flexibility to the organization. Business models need to be reframed as per the surrounding and the global environment to compete with the other countries. New Zealand has all the resources which are essential in a developed economy. Technology revolution has led to a major shift in the business trends by increasing the exposure to market risk. A successful business strategy increases the possibility to offer sufficient opportunities to grow under difficult situation. The economy need to focus on its local people for creating sufficient resources by adapting new technology. The country needs good managers to enhance the overall productivity. Due to major shift of population the other country New Zeal and has been facing serious threats regarding economy fall. The country has developed tourism, dairy farm, etc to create employment opportunity. It has fewer resources as compared to other developed countries. It need to focus on its population and should see the reasons which are majorly due to shift of population. The chief executive has to carry the responsibility to renew or to recreate the business plan. Mangers need to be more creative and productive while focusing on the future business opportunity and should have vision to solve the potential problems. With the change in management the managers need to be more flexible in their approach to solve the troubles of the organizations. They should be more focused on adopting the futuristic plan to develop the organization skills and order. The management has a responsibility to focus on the changing business environment practices. They should change their way of thinking by elaborating their prime focus towards nonlinear process. The managers need to adopt the policies which are essential to promote the overall expansion by regenerating the old structure. More focus need to be given on the managerial behavior and conventional practices which are causing harm to the development of the organization. The managers need to focus on the cost effective techniques to create a better atmosphere for the employees which will improve the overall efficiency. A manger should focus on encouraging innovative business practices within the organization (Folkman, 2013). They should develop a leadership skill which guarantees better performance by the employees. They need to be deviate towards nurturing better relationships with the stakeholders. Formation of relationship with the external stakeholders will enable the organization in managing the operating costs. Wisdom of the chief executive helps in balancing the relationship with the outside world which provides a great help. They are imbibed with qualities to deal in a comp lex environment. Uncertainty is attached with the dynamic business environment which causes financial crisis and difficulties which need to be tackled with high level of insight. The private sector has more opportunity as compare to the public sector, whereas the leaders need to focus on the dynamic business environment (Macky K and P Boxall, 2008). New Zealand is a developed economy with ample of opportunities and a set of skilled labors. Organizations need to focus on retaining the employees and supports them in achieving the targets. HR managers are playing a significant role in building the rapport of the organization. Special need is given on developing interpersonal skills to survive on a long run. Managers should focus on building a good rapport inside as well as outside the organization. The high level manager is focusing on redesigning the overall structure while managing the limited resources. The country has limited resources which need to be utilized with due care. The CEO focuses on improving the ongoing issues related to the dynamic environment. They have to utilize various tools to improve the work structure under the dynamic situations (Jan Brinckmann, 2008). The leaders need to frame the training programs as per the changing environment to provide the employees with best skills. It focuses on how a manager at di fferent hierarchy interacts with each other to balance the overall productivity in the organization. Expansion of processes to enhance the employee productivity is a necessity in the market by developing the core process. The country needs to realize the role of H.R practitioners in shaping the employees future which cant be ignored for a longer time. In this fast-paced economy the skills of executive officers helps in drafting the plan for the future of the organization. They need to commit themselves to increase the low productivity issue faced by the country in recent past. Management development and excellent human resource practice can only prove to be a significant tool in arranging the process under the variable circumstances (Truss, C., Mankin,D.and Kelliher,2012). Technology and environment are posing difficulty on the survival because of change in the global economy. New Zealand is a developed economy with abundance of new avenues to serve the purpose. The dynamic nature of business environment is posing a risk on the organizational behavior. The role of chief executives is increasing due to shift in the business practices. The chief executives responsibilities are increasing with the dynamics of environment. Stakeholders are given more preference due to rise in instability in business (New Zealand Productivity Commission, 2013). The country is witnessing brain-drain in averse of good opportunity. Although the country has best managerial skills but it is seeing a fall in the productivity. A high number of skilled employees are directly related with the productivity. Managerial skills need to be seen from a different side to increase the overall output, so that the people do not move to other places in search of new opportunity (Mello, 2014). An economy needs manpower to increase the overall productivity. New Zealand has seen a change in the trends due to shift of its population to other countries due to availability of less exposure. The shift of skill population to Australia and other countries has affected the growth which has caused degradation in the output. Managerial efficiency need to be given special attention to adapt the changes taking place in the global environment. The changing environment has created an urgency to retain the skilled employees. Managers need to adopt a systematic approach towards new possibilities. Market is flourishing at a large scale which is creating ample of opportunities at the local land. There is only a need to focus on the strategic development of the resources to promote regional employment. References Armstrong, M. (2016). Strategic Human Resource Management. Kogan Page Publishers Cloutier, R. (2015). Becoming a Global Chief Security Executive Officer: A How to Guide for Next Generation Security Leaders. Butterworth-Heinemann Folkman, J. (2013) Top 9 Leadership Behaviors that Drive Employee Commitment (Online).Available from: https://zengerfolkman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/ZFA-9-Behaviors.pdf (Accessed on: 23/09/16) Green R, R Agarwal, P Brown, H Tan and K Randhawa (2011) .Management matters in New Zealand: How does manufacturing measure up? Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington. (Online).Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/publications-research/publications/economic-development/2011-occasional-papers/Management-matters-in-NZ-11-03.pdf (Accessed on: 23/09/16) Jan Brinckmann, J. (2008). Competence of Top Management Teams and Success of New Technology-Based Firms. Springer Science Business Media Job market key industries. (2016) (Online).Available from: https://www.newzealandnow.govt.nz/work-in-nz/nz-jobs-industries (Accessed on: 23/09/16) Macky K and P Boxall (2008) Employee experiences of high-performance work systems: An analysis of sectoral, occupational, organizational and employee variables. New Zealand Journal of Employment Relations 33(1), 118. Mello, J. (2014). Strategic Human Resource Management. Cengage Learning New Zealand Economic and Financial Overview, (2016). (Online).Available from: https://www.treasury.govt.nz/economy/overview/2016/17.htm (Accessed on: 23/09/16) New Zealand Productivity Commission (2013) (Online).Available from: https://www.productivity.govt.nz/about-us/why-is-productivity-important (Accessed on: 23/09/16) New Zealands Challenges, (2016). (Online).Available from: https://neweconomics.net.nz/index.php/new-zealands-challenges/ (Accessed on: 23/09/16) Top 10 economic issues facing New Zealand, (2010). (Online).Available from: https://www.nbr.co.nz/article/top-10-economic-issues-facing-nz-134039 (Accessed on: 23/09/16) Truss, C., Mankin, D.and Kelliher, C. (2012). Strategic Human Resource Management. OUP Oxford What's behind the fall in unemployment? (2016). (Online).Available from: https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/political/295704/what's-behind-the-fall-in-unemployment (Accessed on: 23/09/16)